Organic Quinoa Production in Bolivia

In contrast to conventional agriculture, which is characterized by mechanization, monocultures and the application of chemical fertilizer and pesticides, organic agriculture follows a more sustainable and ecological approach. Organic agriculture is production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. Due to raising concern about conventional production systems which have an effect on human, livestock and environmental health, the number of regions who are growing organic products has increased significantly since 2002. Also, the bolivian quinoa farmers are affected by the growing demand of organic quinoa, which will be discussing in the following post.

Since the opening of the international Quinoa market, also the demand for organic Quinoa has become significant. In 1996 to 1997, producer organizations of Quinoa in Bolivia started with organic production by making use of the natural developmental conditions on the hill side. The approach of the establishment of a more organic production was due to the market requirements for biological products and the expected prices which encouraged farmers to produce organically on the plain of Southern Altiplano. However, besides the effort to increase biological production, only 8 percent of the total cultivated surface area in the region in under the production of organic Quinoa, where still 90 percent of the total Quinoa production is coming from conventional farms. Conventional Quinoa production means that chemical pesticides and fertilizers are used and that this production system also makes intensive use of agricultural machinery in preparing the soil and therefore is the affecting the already fragile ecosystem. Important to mention here is that, as the demand for quinoa has grown, production system shifted from traditional production to more conventional high input production system. (Wilfredo Rojas, 2004 )

 Traditional quinoa production was mainly focused on little soil preparation and only used residual fertilizer from preceding crops, where the widespread conventional system pays little attention to more ecological and sustainable management systems. (FAO, n.d )

As the attention towards health, environmental and social responsibilities has increased, the organic sector is rapidly growing, giving Bolivia the opportunity to sell more of its organically produced products, for example to the EU, where the demand of quinoa is directly driven by the organic sector. (CBI, 2015) Bolivia is hoping to increase organic export but at the same time encourages to increase the Quinoa consumption directly in Bolivia, where the high prices don´t allow citizens to make use of their traditional food source. Also the Bolivian government has took effort to increase the organic production through certifications schemes which is recognized by the EU and USAID, which will allow Bolivia to export organic products to the EU and the USA.  Participants get directly technical assistance through which they are able to improve the quality of their production. The production of organic Quinoa means that farmers directly receive more sustainable prices and the consumers have more reasons to buy from certified fair trade quinoa exporters. (Romer, 2015)

In conclusion it can be said that Bolivia should continue seeking for long- term sustainable production, by using an agronomic approach that doesn´t damage the ecosystem. An important step would be to bring back certain traditional management systems which are more in harmony with nature or by adding manure, green fertilizer, minimum tillage and biological pest control. As the demand for organic Quinoa continues to grow, especially in developed countries, Bolivia has great opportunities to penetrate its position in this market and increase their organic production, which will benefit the environment, the farmers and the consumer directly in Bolivia and in other counties.

References

CBI. (December 2015). CBI Product Factsheet: Quinoa in Europe . Date accessed: January 2017 from Interpretation and opportunities : https://www.cbi.eu/sites/default/files/market_information/researches/product-factsheet-europe-quinoa-grains-pulses-2015.pdf

FAO. (n.d ). Cultivation Practices . Date accessed:  January 2017 from Quinoa (Chenopodium quince): http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/t0646e0f.htm

Romer, N. (23. December 2015). Do you know where your Quinoa comes from? . Date accessed:  December 2016 from NACLA : http://nacla.org/news/2015/12/23/do-you-know-where-your-quinoa-comes

Wilfredo Rojas, J. L. (2004 ). Organic Production . Date accessed: December 2016 from Study on the social, environmental and economic impacts of Quinoa promotion in Bolivia : http://www.underutilized-species.org/Documents/PUBLICATIONS/quinoa_case_study_en.pdf

Harvest and Storage of Quinoa

Harvesting and Storage of a specific crop is a critical step in the production of crops as it has an effect on the yield and its quality. Proper harvesting and storage methods can contribute significantly to the overall productivity of the crop and therefore appropriate methods for the specific crop should be used.

The Quinoa plants are harvested when the reach physiological maturity and are laid out for 30 to 45 days to dry. Afterwards they are threshed, beaten with curved sticks and tramped by animals. Traditionally, the plants are unrooted by hands and dried on stacks or heaps and afterwards threshed manually. However experience has shown that the un- rooting of the plants is leading to contamination of grains by small stones and sand that are attached to the roots. In the 1996 to 1997 however, mechanical cutting has been introduced with the use of harvester. The crops can than either be harvested by a combine harvester or stationary harvester. The achieved yield are up to 5000 kg per hectare of grain and the by- products of the harvest is 5 – 10 tonnes, which is used for feeding livestock. (FAO, n.d )

Figure 1: Traditional Quinoa threshing in Bolivia 

Unfortunately Bolivian Quinoa farmers had to face losses due to attributable management deficiencies, particularly associated with harvest and post- harvest losses. The process of harvesting the crops and the post- harvest stage are critical stages which are contributing to the overall quality of the quinoa grain. In general, the management from cutting to final processing is costly and the control over these processes is rather limited. Therefore it is often the case that, especially in traditional farming systems, impurities can be found in the final product, which directly influences the market price. The technique of cutting instead of un- rooting the crops has shown that it reduces the probability of incorporation of impurities and small stones in the grain. In addition, the use of an arches system for drying the plants is offering a relative degree of protection against attacks by rodents.  The process of threshing has also been tried to improve by using mechanical threshers which makes the threshing process easier and reduces the percentage of un- threshed grains. All these approaches do have a positive effect on the seed quality, the overall productivity of the farm and the market price. However the costs of machinery is high and not all farmers are be able to make use of these products if they don´t receive any financial support. (Wilfredo Rojas, 2004 )

However the use of machinery is not the only solution to reduce harvest and storage losses. Looking at this issue from a more ecological approach, it can be said that the overall yield can be improved by better preparation of the soil and the application of enough nitrogen during sowing and earthing up. Proper soil management and the maintenance of adequate organic matter within the soil will affect the farms productivity and at the same time promotes biological diversity on the farm. In case the farmers are not able to make use of the machineries which are reducing post- harvest losses, proper training for the farmers can be offered, where participants are educated about proper handling of crops and the prevention of contamination.

References

FAO. (n.d ). Cultivation Practices . Date accessed: January 2017 from  Quinoa (Chenopodium quince): http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/t0646e0f.htm

Wilfredo Rojas, J. L. (2004 ). Organic Production . Date accessed: December 2016 from Study on the social, environmental and economic impacts of Quinoa promotion in Bolivia : http://www.underutilized-species.org/Documents/PUBLICATIONS/quinoa_case_study_en.pdf

Pest and Disease in Quinoa Production

Even though Quinoa is a quite adaptable, drought tolerant plant that thrives in rich and drained soil, the production is facing problems associated with pests and disease. (Seeds, n.d ) The following post will look more closely into the pest and diseases that are affecting the Quinoa production in Bolivia.

Since the more intensive use of agricultural machineries, such as the plough or sowing machine, which are losening the subsoil, pests have started to breed and increase in that specific area. Traditionally these methods are not used, which led to an increase of particular pests, such as the larvae of ticona and pollina de quinoa, who found new habitable area in the soil that has been loosend by machineries. (sites, n.d )

Other pests that are commonly found in quinoa farming are stem borer, flea beetles, aphids, leafhopper, beet armyworm, and tarnished plant bugs. On the other side fungal leaf spots, stalk rot, damping off , downy mildew and grew mold are all common disease found in the quinoa cultivation. (Agrifarming, n.d ) These diseases are caused by fungi, bacteria, virus or a vector such as nematodes, insects or other organism that provide an entry point for the disease to invade.

Quinoa Plant afected by downy mildew at early stages 

Pest management in Bolivia is mainly controlled by biological control, which means that the pest is not completely eliminated but the control methods bring the pest down to managerial levels. Biological pest management is using living organisms to control a pest problem by predation, parasitism, or competition. An example of this approach can be identified in Bolivias quinoa production, where 45 % of the parasite eurysacca melanocampta is controlled by a range of parasitoid species and predators in the field. (International, n.d )

Other methods of management is the selection of high quality seed cultivars, which are having a good pest & disease resistance. Therefore, a large number of farmers in Bolivia are using cultivars with a high degree of resistance to mildew, which is central when controlling fungal disease such as mildew. The appearance of mildew is a restrictive factor for growing quinoa and therefore breeding programs have been developed in Bolivia which are based on considerable existing genetic diversity. Quinoa farmers in Bolivia who are using these varieties are able to exploit these for several generations and are able to reduce costs as these varieties require fewer or no fungicide application. (Antoine gandarillas, n.d )

Besides the selection of good quality and high resistance plants it is also from high importance to pay attention to cultural cultivation practices which restrict the ability of pest and disease to breed in the soil. Both of these factors are components of integrated pest management (IPM) which is a strategy that incorporates five management methods to control pests. These components are from cultural, biological, mechanical, genetic and chemical origin, and are thriving to develop an ecosystem which minimizes impact of pests. Besides the already existing approach of biological and genetic approach, it is also recommend to use cropping systems such as polycropping or intercropping, which will promote the biodiversity to provide an environment that reduces pest population. 

References

Agrifarming. (n.d ). Quinoa farming information Guide . Abgerufen am December 2016 von http://www.agrifarming.in/quinoa-farming-information-guide/

Antoine gandarillas, w. r. (n.d ). Quinoa in Bolivia: The PROINPA foundation´s perspective . Date accessed:  December 2016 von Quinoa crops in andean countries : http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4042e/i4042e22.pdf

International, H. (n.d ). Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests. Date accessed: December 2016 from NC State University : https://hortintl.cals.ncsu.edu/articles/advances-knowledge-quinoa-pests

Seeds, S. S. (n.d ). Growing Amaranth and Quinoa . Date accessed: December 2016 from https://www.saltspringseeds.com/pages/growing-amaranth-and-quinoa-dans-scoop

sites, g. (n.d ). Quinoa Production in Bolivia . Date accessed: December 2016 from Analysis: Environmental : https://sites.google.com/a/cornell.edu/quinoa-production-in-bolivia/analysis/environmental

Soil

Soil is not just dirt! Soil holds our words food security in its hand, as it is a unique ecosystem that is an essential resource for the production and growth of plants and crops. Good soil management is crucial for sustainable and efficient crop production by at the same time enhancing the biodiversity.

Quinoa is mainly grown in the highlands of the Altiplano region, which is a dry and cold region with the least fertile soil and the least rain. (Agriculturist, n.d )The soil types found in this region ranges from shallow stony sandy loams to deeper gay reddish brown clay (FAO, n.d )with a organic matter content of less than 1 %. The small amount of organic matter is mainly due to the decrease of livestock farming in the region which at the same time means that less manure is applied to the area. The surface soil texture is mainly sandy loam or loam, which makes it subsceptible to wind erosion.  The B Horizon which is the subsoil, is made out of sandy clay or loam. (Dregne, 1976 )

In the highlands, where Quinoa is mainly grown, the soil pH amounts 5,5 with the following nutrient make up:  P:7, Ca: 09, Mg: 1,0, K:0,2 (Vera, 2006)

 The best soil texture for Quinoa is easy worked, semi- deep soil with a good drainage and an adequate supply of nutrients. Therefore Quinoa thrives well in acid soils with a pH of 4,5 or in alkaline soils with a pH up to 9,5, depending on the ecotype. The most suitable soil for Quinoa is sandy loam but acceptable production can also take place in sandy or clayed soils. (FAO, Quinoa (Chenopodium quince) , n.d )

Due to the decrease of natural fertilizer which is because of the replacement of alpaca, illama and sheep with the increased production of quinoa, other sources of fertilizer need to be applied to the soil. Quinoa responds well to nitrogen fertilizer, where 120 kg of nitrogen, 50 kg of phosphorus and 50 kg of potassium are applied to 1 hectare of land. Besides that, it is also recommend to enrich soil with organic matter during land preparation with rotten farm yard manure. (AgriFarming, n.d ) Another reason for the organic matter loss in the quinoa growing regions is due to the increased production of Quinoa in monocultures and the reduction of traditional farming systems. (Cardenas)

The export oriented Quinoa production is contributing significantly to soil erosion as more land is used for quinoa production, spreading into wild areas where local communities traditionally farm livestock. Expanded agricultural production areas also lead to a lack of vegetative cover which speeds up the process of soil erosion by reducing wind breaks which are from high importance when it comes to protecting the crops from wind. 

Soil Erosion in Bolivia´s Quinoa Fields 

Besides the reduction of the application of animal manure and the destruction of vegetative cover, the increased use of tractor has degraded soil fertility. These issue show that there is a need of action for introducing different agricultural methods that will increase the soil organic matter content and therefore enable the farmer to continue the production while at the same time protecting the environment. (Google, n.d )

Agricultural methods would need to be focused on the approach of increasing the quality of the soil in areas where quinoa is already grown rather than expanding the production further into wild areas. Examples of approaches which can be taken to increase the quality of the soil would be crop rotation or polycropping or the reforestation with thola to protect and recover degraded soil. The thola is a shrub which is naturally found in the Andean region and which can be used efficiently to build windbreaks. (Drynet, 2015)

References

Agriculturist, N. (n.d ). Country profile- Bolivia . Date accessed: December 2016 from  New Agriculturist : http://www.new-ag.info/en/country/profile.php?a=3155

AgriFarming. (n.d ). Quinoa Farming Information Guide . Date accessed:  December 2016 from http://www.agrifarming.in/quinoa-farming-information-guide/

Cardenas, D. M. (kein Datum). Bolivia- Bolivian Highlands (Altiplano) . Date accessed:December 2016 from  Case study: Bolivian Highlands : http://www.unesco.org/science/doc/mab/Bolivia.pdf

Dregne, H. (1976 ). Soil of arif regions . Date accessed: December 2016 from Development in soil science 6 : https://books.google.nl/books?id=pgregnOa4S8C&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Drynet. (15 . october 2015). Native windbreaks in the bolivian altiplano control of desertification caused by Quinoa . Date accessed:  December 2016 from drynet : http://dry-net.org/initiatives/native-windbreaks-in-the-bolivian-altiplano-control-of-desertification-caused-by-quinoa/

FAO. (n.d ). Quinoa (Chenopodium quince) . Date accessed:  December 2016 from FAO : http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/t0646e0f.htm

FAO. (n.d ). Report on the soils in Bolivia . Date accessed:  December 2016 from World soil resource office : http://www.fao.org/3/a-15622e.pdf

Google, S. (n.d ). Quinoa Production in Bolivia . FromAnalysis: Environmental : https://sites.google.com/a/cornell.edu/quinoa-production-in-bolivia/analysis abgerufen

Vera, D. R. (May 2006). Country pasture / Forage Resource Profiles: soils and Topography Bolivia . Date accessed:  December 2016 from FAO : http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Counprof/Bolivia/Bolivia.htm#2

Environment and Agroecosystems in Bolivia

The environment and the agroecosystem within a region are important factors when it comes to crop production. Certain crops have the ability to flourish in specific environments where other crops would not be able to survive. In the following post, the environment and agroecosystem of Bolivia will be identified and Quinoas specific requirements regarding rainfall and fertility will be discussed.

In Bolivia the weather greatly differs depending on the altitude and topography of the region, however most of the country is situated at high elevation where the temperature varies from humid during the day to freezing temperatures during the night. In the region of southern Altiplano where most of the Quinoa is grown you find one of the harshest environments in Bolivia. There the climate is cold and dry and is one of the desertification hotspots in Bolivia. (drynet, 2015 )However besides all these harsh conditions, the Quinoa plant has the advantage to adapt to high climate risk regions because the plant tolerates water with some salt as well as frost and drought. (Margaret Smith, n.d )

In general the climate in Bolivia is tropical with a great deal of rainfall even in the driest month. The average temperate is 18,8 degrees with an average yearly rainfall of 3343 mm.  The greatest amount of precipitation is taking place with an average amount of 428 mm in October. (data, n.d )Depending on the agro- ecological zone and the genotype to which the Quinoa plant belongs to, the participation requirements vary from 250 mm (areas of salt deposits) to 1500 mm in the inner Andean valley. Quinoa only requires little amounts of water and 300 mm of rainfall is enough to keep the plant healthy. (GIZ, n.d ) Even though Quinoa has the advantage of a strong resistance to periods of drought, sufficient humidity is requires at the beginning of the cultivation. Regarding the temperature where quinoa can be exposed to, it can be seen that the plant can tolerate minus 5 degrees in the branching period, however this also depends on the ecotype and the duration of this temperatures. (FAO, n.d )

The overall rain fall pattern at the higher altitude in the Andean region is making agriculture difficult and vulnerable to hail and frost, drought and floods. Also climate change is having an effect on quinoa production as it is predicted that in future there will be longer dry seasons and more frequent storm events. Direct observations taken by farmers also implied that rain reception will be delayed and will cause a serious disruption of the traditional farming precipitation system.

Traditionally Quinoa farmers only use rain water to supply their plants with water. Irrigation is therefore not a very well- known technique but might be greatly needed to have access to water during critical times. (Cardenas, n.d )This will have a significant effect for small holder farmers of Quinoa who typically cultivate simply under rain fed conditions which also means that they have to deal with low yields in extremely dry years. However due to the limited water resources in the region, a full irrigation system does not seem to solve this problem. Therefore it would be recommend to make use of defict irrigation systems which applies water to the plant below full crop- water requirements. (S. Geerts, 2009)

But not only insufficient irrigation system is affecting the overall yield of Quinoa, other environmental factors have a large impact on the overall productivity of Quinoa farmers in Bolivia as well. First of all large deforestation is taking place of the native shrub thola to clear space for quinoa fields. Soil erosion has been speed up by the reduction of natural windbreaks, which are very important to shield crops. Now we know however, that reforestation of this shrub would be beneficial to protect plants from winds. The environmental impacts are associated with the increase in commercial quinoa production which leads to soil degradation and a disequilibrium between crop and animals production. There is reduced access to animal manure, a destruction of vegetative cover, resulting in soil erosion and an increase in agricultural pests. Besides that the increased use of tractors has degraded soil fertility. All of these aspects make clear that there is a urgent need towards the reintroduction of traditional methods of cultivation which is more focused on environmental integrity and health of agricultural land rather than intense cultivation. (bolivia, n.d )The Intense cultivation of Quinoa also implies the cultivation in Monocultures, which is a system with a single crop gown in the field during the growing season. There is an immense concern regarding these monocultures in Bolivia, as it is leading to an overall unsustainable production. (Susanne Frijs Pedersen, n.d )

Traditionally quinoa has partly been grown in polycultures, which means two or more crops are grown together at the same time on the same piece of land. In this case Quinoa has been grown with corn, bean or potato crops, which has the advantage that the plants have a greater tolerance to stress and make better use of environmental resources. The replacement of cultural practices by monocultures and crop intensification however is leading to desertification, a decline in soil fertility and a loss of natural vegetation. (Murphy, n.d )

Figure 1: Monoculture cultivation of Quinoa in Bolivia 

All these environmental issues associated with Quinoa Production are making me come to the conclusion that the commercial quinoa production does not operate in a sustainable way and there is a need towards more sustainable production systems. First of all it is important to bring back aspect of cultural cultivation practices such as Polycropping which benefits the soil but also the farmer as he will be able to sell other products besides quinoa. The preservation of land and good soil management is crucial to make efficient use of the land and at the same time pay attention to the environment. In order to reduce co2 and promote carbon sequestration it would be recommend to follow principles of climate smart agriculture which is focused on increasing productivity, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the enhancement of achieving national food security. Recommend approaches that promote carbon sequestration in Quinoa farming are conservation tillage, green manure, additional manure and compost and tree planting.  

References 

bolivia, Q. p. (n.d ). Analysis: environmental . Date accessed:  December 2016 from https://sites.google.com/a/cornell.edu/quinoa-production-in-bolivia/analysis/environmental

Cardenas, D. M. (n.d ). Bolivia- Bolivian Highlands (Altiplano) . Date accessed: December 2016 from Case study: Bolivian Highlands : http://www.unesco.org/science/doc/mab/Bolivia.pdf

data, C. (n.d ). Climate: Bolivia . Date accessed: December 2016 von https://en.climate-data.org/location/443817/

drynet. (15. October 2015 ). Native Windbreaks in the Bolivian Altiplano Control of desertification caused by Quinoa . Date accessed: December 2016 from drynet : http://dry-net.org/initiatives/native-windbreaks-in-the-bolivian-altiplano-control-of-desertification-caused-by-quinoa/

FAO. (n.d ). Quinoa (Chenopodium quince) . Date accessed: December 2016 from FAO : http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/t0646e0f.htm

GIZ. (n.d ). Quinoa from the andes to the world . Date accessed: December 2016 from Giz: https://www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/Quinoa_A4_E-Online-Version.pdf

Margaret Smith. (n.d ). Quinoa . Date accessed: December 2016 from Ag Mrc Agricultural marketing resource center : http://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/quinoa/

Murphy, K. (n.d ). Quinoa: Improvement and Sustainable Production. Date accessed:December 2016 from Wiley Blackwell : https://books.google.nl/books?id=VLEOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=is+quinoa+in+bolivia+grown+in+monocultures+or+polycultures&source=bl&ots=YS7Wj72O2H&sig=UeMdfzm-cLVjvaar19tCI8G-1jg&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx3qa3sL_RAhXJ6xoKHUN-DRYQ6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=is%2

S. Geerts, D. R. (28. Juny 2009). Modeling the potential for closing quinoa yield gaps under varying water. Date accessed: December 2016 from Agricultural Water Management : file:///C:/Users/Leonie/Downloads/quinoa%20in%20the%20altiplano.pdf

Susanne Frijs Pedersen, B. N. (n.d ). Introduction to the Quinoa Dilemma . Date accessed: December 2016 from http://orgprints.org/29589/1/Introduction%20to%20the%20quinoa%20dilemma-quinoapanel.pdf

Improving Quinoa

Improving plants refers to techniques used, such as breeding, to improve the characteristics of a plant. Main objective of these approaches are to improve yield, quality, resistance to pest and disease and environmental conditions. These approaches can be beneficial for the farmer, the environment and the food market, if they are used in appropriate way. Therefore I would like to discuss in the following post, which actions are taken in Bolivia to improve characteristics of the Quinoa plant. As the demand for Quinoa is growing, these approaches are from high importance to assure a consistent supply of the crop.

Quinoa is usually self- pollinating but cross pollination does occur at rates of up to 10 to 15 percent. The difference between self - pollinating and cross- pollinating plants is that self- pollinating plants have perfect flowers and are mainly a pure breed and hybrid variety. The plant is able to pollinate itself by transferring the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of the same plant.  Self- pollinating plants are usually genetically homozygous, meaning that the plant has identical alleles for a single trait (gene). In contrast to this, cross- pollinating plants are monocy, dioecy, self- incompatible or from heterogeneous population, so not a pure line.  In this case, the transfer of pollen grains goes from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another flower of a different plant but from the same species. The actual transfer is taking place by wind, insects, water animals or others. Visual differences of self-pollinating or cross- pollinating plants can very often be identified by having a closer look  at the flowers, because self-  pollinating plants have smaller flowers and perfect flower.  Where on the other side cross-pollinating plants have brightly colored petals, nector and scent, as well as long stamen pistils. (Diffen, n.d )

To get back to the Quinoa production in Bolivia, we can see that there are several plant breeding programs which are aiming to improve characteristics of Quinoa. Plant breeding in general is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desires characteristics. The actual breeding of Quinoa already took place thousands of year ago, when people started to select seeds and plants in order to alter the genotypic and phenotypic traits in the Andean region area. Today the trait improvement is visible in the seed through natural or human selection. In the 1960s to the 1970s, breeding programs were mainly focused on yield, a larger grain size, single stems of no- branches stems, disease resistance and good cooking qualities. Later in the 1980 to the 1990s other objectives such as early maturity, black and red grains and mildew resistance became more importance. Not long time ago from 2000 to 2010, breeders created hail and drought resistance, with a better industrial and nutritional quality, meaning that the crop was more suitable for mechanized harvesting techniques, which was part of new agricultural management approaches. At last, hybrid breeding became special attention with the aim to quickly combine favorable straights from several genotypes, into a single genotype to only produce uniform varieties. (bonifacio, n.d )

These breeding approaches had an effect on yield and quality of Quinoa. The higher yield which can be obtained through the improvement of the plant characteristics depends greatly on the degree and type of the genetic variation and the genotype- by environment interaction. As there are many different varieties of Quinoa and the environment changes depending on the region, the interaction of the genotype and the environment greatly determine whether the genotype will be the same at the end. Therefore breeding programs have to consider the different environments in the region to evaluation strategies to measure the effect of these interactions. However these are real case examples where the yield improved from 700 kg, to 1,2 tonnes per hectare. At last breeding objectives enable the plant to withstand pests such as mildew and environmental factors which enable the plant to adapt to climate change which brings for example delayed rainfall. The improvement of plant architecture also enables farmers to make harvesting techniques more efficient. At last the improvement of grain size is very much appreciated by the export market, providing farmers with larger opportunities to export their products. (bonifacio, n.d )

As we already touched quickly the subject of genes, the use of transgenic plants is another issue which has to be discussed at this point. Even though, Bolivia does not produce GMO Quinoa, it is important to pay some attention to this topic as it is from high relevance in the subject of crop production. Transgenic plants are plant from which the DNA has been modified by using genetic engineering techniques, meaning that a new straight is introduced in the species that does not occur naturally. The inserted gene is than called transgene that might come from a complete different species or an unrelated plant. The overall objective of the use of transgenic plants it to improve the overall production and to improve shelf life, drought and cold resistance, pest resistance, yield and quality. However there is a lot of concern about the use of transgenic plants mainly associated with human and environmental health. I my humble opinion, I can say that as far as my knowledge enables me to judge, that I am not in favor of the use of transgenic plants. The reason for this is that I do not like to accept the fact that this process in interfering with nature, which makes me feel uncomfortable when eating products which are produced through such a manner. In relation to this there is not enough scientific research available that really proves that the use of transgenic plants does not have any effects on the biodiversity and ecosystems, as genes from modified organism can be spread to unmodified relatives. I am not claiming that the use of these crops are not favorable for farmers and their yield but I believe that agricultural production systems which are more in-line with nature and the whole ecosystem will have a triple win solution by having the least impact on the environment and  at the same time providing healthy products to the people

References

bonifacio, A. (n.d ). Quinoa Breeding and modern variety development . Date accessed: December 2016 from FAO : http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4042e/i4042e12.pdf

Diffen. (n.d ). Cross Pollination vs Self Pollination . Date accessed: December 2016 from Botany : http://www.diffen.com/difference/Cross_Pollination_vs_Self_Pollination

Plant Physiology and Growth

Within a plant, there are many physiological processes that are constantly occurring to allow the plant to grow and survive. Chemical reactions within the leaves produce sugar molecules through the process of photosynthesis which are needed by the plant for growing new cells and tissues. Plants are generally able to store food (so sugar) in their seeds, roots, stems or other parts, which indicates at the same time that the sugar molecules produced by the Quinoa plant are stored in the seed that is consumed. The seeds have a high protein content and are therefore considered as a very healthy food ingredient.

The Quinoa plant is part of the C3 plants, which means that it falls under the category of temperate or cool- season plants. In contrast to this, C4 plants are called tropical or warm season plants. The main difference of these two categories is that C3 plants reduce directly Co2 by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase in the chloroplast. Besides that, C3 plants usually provide a higher percentage of crude protein. On the other side, C4 plants are known for a more efficient gathering of carbon dioxide and utilizing nitrogen from the atmosphere. (Betts, n.d )

Quinoa is part of the annual species which means that the plants perform their entire life cycle from seed to flower to seed within one grown season. (E.A. Oelke, n.d ) In contrast to this, plants which are part of the perennial category persist for many growing seasons, where biennial plants require two years to complete their life cycle.

The vegetative growth of Quinoa varies between 150 to 240 days, depending on the environmental conditions in the specific region. This is the active growth phase where the plant acquires new properties to reach the vegetative maturity. In this phase the Quinoa seeds are not produced yet. On the other side the reproductive phase is the period where the plant will produce flowers and seeds to each physiological maturity. This phase is largely depending on the photoperiod sensibility of each variety where the duration of the stages can be modified, depending on the length of the day and the temperatures. (Didier Bazile, 2016)

The photoperiod sensibility of Quinoa is manifested from early stage of development up to the advanced stages of grain filling. Quinoas short day response to photoperiod means that the duration of some development stages is longer when plants are grown during longer days. However the Quinoa plant is able to reach flowering in all ranges of photoperiod explored. Therefore the capacity of Quinoa to respond to photoperiod changes is only affected after flowering stages. (Bertero, n.d )

Quinoa is not able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, as the nitrogen fixing bacteria are not present in the plant. In contrast to this, legumes are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen by making use of the bacteria present in the root nodules which convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonium or nitrates which can be used by the plant. Due to this it could be recommend to apply crop rotation with legume varieties which enrich the soil and are beneficial for the environment and biodiversity.

References

Bertero, H. D. (n.d ). Section 2.1:Environmental control of development . Date accessed: November 2016 from FAO : http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4042e/i4042e08.pdf

Betts, D. L. (n.d ). What is the difference between c3 and c4 plants? . Date accessed  December 2016 von k- State Research and Extension : http://www.midway.k-state.edu/livestock/docs/What%20is%20the%20difference%20between%20C3%20plants%20and%20C4%20plants.pdf

Didier Bazile, C. P. (21. June 2016). Worldwide Evaluations of Quinoa: Preliminary Results from Post International Year of Quinoa FAO Projects in Nine Countries. Dte accessed: December 2016 from Frontiers in Plant Science : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4914551/

E.A. Oelke, D. P. (n.d ). Quinoa . Date accessed: December 2016 from Alternative Field Crops Manual : https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/quinoa.html